Glossary (H - K)

Click on a letter to view the corresponding section of the glossary:

H . . .

H₂-Blockers (aytch-too BLAH-kurz)

Medicines that reduce the amount of acid the stomach produces. They block histamine₂ (HIH-stuh-min-too). Histamine signals the stomach to make acid. Prescription H₂-blockers are cimetidine (suh-MEH-tuh-deen) (Tagamet), famotidine (fuh-MAH-tuh-deen) (Pepcid), nizatidine (nih-ZAH-tuh-deen) (Axid), and ranitidine (ruh-NIH-tuh-deen) (Zantac). They are used to treat ulcer symptoms. Nonprescription H₂-blockers are Zantac 75, Axid AR, Pepcid-AC, and Tagamet-HB. They are for GERD, heartburn, and acid indigestion.

Half-life

the time required for the decay of half a sample of a radioactive substance; may also apply to pharmacologic agents (see elimination half- life - the time required for half the amount of a substance to be eliminated from the body or to be converted to another substance(s)).

Heartburn (HART-burn)

A painful, burning feeling in the chest. Heartburn is caused by stomach acid flowing back into the esophagus. Changing the diet and other habits can help to prevent heartburn. Heartburn may be a symptom of GERD. See also Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD).

Tips to control heartburn Avoid foods and beverages that affect lower esophageal sphincter pressure or irritate the esophagus lining. Lose weight if overweight. Stop smoking. Elevate the head of the bed 6 inches. Avoid lying down 2 to 3 hours after eating. Take an antacid.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) (HELL-uh-koh-BAK-tur py-LOH-ree)

A spiral-shaped bacterium found in the stomach. H. pylori damages stomach and duodenal tissue, causing ulcers. Previously called Campylobacter pylori.

Helper T cell

lymphocyte bearing the CD4 marker. Helper T cells are the chief regulatory cells of the immune response. They are responsible for many immune system functions, including turning antibody production on and off, and are the main target of HIV infection. (See also CD4+ T lymphocyte.)

Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C)

The substance of red blood cells that carries oxygen to the cells and sometimes joins with glucose (sugar). Because the glucose stays attached for the life of the cell (about 4 months), a test to measure hemoglobin A1C shows what the person's average blood glucose level was for that period of time.

For more information about Helicobacter pylori see:

H. Pylori News

Summaries of recent research and other news about Helicobacter pylori and its treatment.

Hemochromatosis (HEE-moh-kroh-muh-toh-sis)

A disease that occurs when the body absorbs too much iron. The body stores the excess iron in the liver, pancreas, and other organs. May cause cirrhosis of the liver. Also called iron overload disease.

Hemorrhoidectomy (HEM-roy-DEK-tuh-mee)

An operation to remove hemorrhoids.

Hemorrhoids (HEM-roydz)

Swollen blood vessels in and around the anus and lower rectum. Continual straining to have a bowel movement causes them to stretch and swell. They cause itching, pain, and sometimes bleeding.

Hemorrhagic

relating to bleeding

HEMOSTASIS (he-moh-STAY-sis)

A halt to bleeding, either by the physiological processes of vasoconstriction and coagulation or by surgical means.

HEPARIN (HEP-uh-rin)

A glycosaminoglycan composed of mixed polysaccharides of various molecular weights; present in many tissues. Heparin has potent anticoagulant activities that result from binding to and enhancing the activity of antithrombin III and from inhibiting a number of coagulation factors, especially factor Xa.

HEPARIN COFACTOR II

A plasma thrombin inhibitor that, similar to antithrombin, undergoes activation in the presence of heparin. To achieve the same level of thrombin inhibition with this inhibitor, heparin cofactor II requires a heparin concentration approximately ten times higher than antithrombin.

HEPARIN-ASSOCIATED THROMBOCYTOPENIA (HAT)

Thrombocytopenia associated with administration of heparin. Two forms are recognized: a mild, self-limiting type called HAT type I, and a delayed and more severe type called HAT type II that is associated with thromboembolic complications. Also known as Heparin-induced Thrombocytopenia (HIT).

HEPARINOID (HEP-uh-rin-oid)

A heparin-like compound.

Hepatic (heh-PAT-ik)

Related to the liver.

Hepatic Encephalopathy (heh-PAT-ik en-SEF-uh-LAWP-uh-thee)

A condition that may cause loss of consciousness and coma. It is usually the result of advanced liver disease. Also called hepatic coma.

Hepatitis (heh-puh-TY-tis)

Irritation of the liver that sometimes causes permanent damage. Hepatitis may be caused by viruses or by medicines or alcohol. Hepatitis has the following forms:

Hepatitis A

A virus most often spread by unclean food and water.

Hepatitis B

A virus commonly spread by sexual intercourse or blood transfusion, or from mother to newborn at birth. Another way it spreads is by using a needle that was used by an infected person. Hepatitis B is more common and much more easily spread than the AIDS virus and may lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer.

Hepatitis C

A virus spread by blood transfusion and possibly by sexual intercourse or sharing needles with infected people. Hepatitis C may lead to cirrhosis and liver cancer. Hepatitis C used to be called non-A, non-B hepatitis.

Hepatitis D (Delta)

A virus that occurs mostly in people who take illegal drugs by using needles. Only people who have hepatitis B can get hepatitis D.

Hepatitis E

A virus spread mostly through unclean water. This type of hepatitis is common in developing countries. It has not occurred in the United States.

Hepatologist (HEH-puh-TAW-luh-jist)

A doctor who specializes in liver diseases.

Hepatology (HEH-puh-TAW-luh-jee)

The field of medicine concerned with the functions and disorders of the liver.

Hepatotoxicity (heh-PAT-oh-tawk-SIS-uh-tee)

How much damage a medicine or other substance does to the liver.

Hernia (HUR-nee-uh)

The part of an internal organ that pushes through an opening in the organ's wall. Most hernias occur in the abdominal area.

Herniorrhaphy (hur-nee-AWR-uh-fee)

An operation to repair a hernia.

Hiatal Hernia (Hiatus Hernia) (hy-AY-tul HUR-nee-uh)

A small opening in the diaphragm that allows the upper part of the stomach to move up into the chest. Causes heartburn from stomach acid flowing back up through the opening. See also Diaphragm.

High Blood Pressure

When the blood flows through the vessels at a greater than normal force. High blood pressure strains the heart; harms the arteries; and increases the risk of heart attack, stroke, and kidney problems. Also called hypertension.

Hirschsprung's Disease (HURSH-sprungz duh-zeez)

A birth defect in which some nerve cells are lacking in the large intestine. The intestine cannot move stool through, so the intestine gets blocked. Causes the abdomen to swell. See also Megacolon.

HIRUDIN (hih-ROO-din)

The active principle secreted by the salivary glands of leeches; it acts as an anticoagulant by blocking the activity of thrombin.

See Hirudin: A Novel Anticoagulant

Histopathologic

the correspondence between the microscopic structure of cells and tissues and their functions

HLA Antigens

Proteins on the outer part of the cell that help the body fight illness. These proteins vary from person to person. Scientists think that people with certain types of HLA antigens are more likely to develop insulin-dependent diabetes.

HLA class I

molecules that exist on all nucleated cells and identify the cell as "self." In addition, if the cell is infected by a virus or other microbe, the cell displays the invader’s antigens in combination with the cell’s HLA class I molecules. The presence of the foreign peptide antigen with the HLA class I molecule activates CD8⁺ CTLs specific for that antigen.

HLA class II

molecules that are found on antigen-presenting cells such as macrophages. These cells process soluble antigens such as toxins or other proteins made by microbes and then display them on their surface as peptide antigens in combination with HLA Class II molecules. Helper T cells specific for these antigens are then able to be activated and respond to the presence of the invading microbe.

Homeostatis

When the body is working as it should because all of its systems are in balance.

Homeostatis

When the body is working as it should because all of its systems are in balance.

Homologous

similar in appearance, structure and usually function.

Host

a plant or animal harboring another organism.

Humoral immunity

see Hydrochloric Acid (hy-droh-KLOR-ik ASS-id)

An acid made in the stomach. Hydrochloric acid works with pepsin and other enzymes to break down proteins.

Hydrogen Breath Test (HY-droh-jen breth test)

A test for lactose intolerance. It measures breath samples for too much hydrogen. The body makes too much hydrogen when lactose is not broken down properly in the small intestine.

Hydrotherapy

Therapy that takes place in the water.

Hyperalimentation (HY-pur-al-uh-men-TAY-shun)

See Parenteral Nutrition.

Hyperbilirubinemia (HY-pur-bil-ee-roo-buh-NEE-mee-uh)

Too much bilirubin in the blood. Symptoms include jaundice. This condition occurs when the liver does not work normally. See also Jaundice.

Hyperglycemia

Too high a level of glucose (sugar) in the blood; a sign that diabetes is out of control. Many things can cause hyperglycemia. It occurs when the body does not have enough insulin or cannot use the insulin it does have to turn glucose into energy. Signs of hyperglycemia are a great thirst, a dry mouth, and a need to urinate often. For people with insulin-dependent diabetes, hyperglycemia may lead to diabetic ketoacidosis.

Hypergonadotropic

increased production of gonad-stimulating hormone from the anterior pituitary gland

Hyperkeratosis (hi-per- ker-ah-TOE-sis)

a disease resulting in the abnormal growth of the corneous (hornlike) layer of the skin

Hyperlipidemia

Too high a level of fats (lipids) in the blood. See also: Syndrome X.

Hyperpigmentation

abnormally increased pigmentation

Hyperplasia (hi-per- PLAY-zee-ah)

an abnormal increase in the number of normal cells in a tissue

Hypertension

Blood pressure that is above the normal range. See also: High blood pressure.

Hypoglycemia

Too low a level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. This occurs when a person with diabetes has injected too much insulin, eaten too little food, or has exercised without extra food. A person with hypoglycemia may feel nervous, shaky, weak, or sweaty, and have a headache, blurred vision, and hunger. Taking small amounts of sugar, sweet juice, or food with sugar will usually help the person feel better within 10-15 minutes. See also: Insulin shock.

Hypogonadism (high-po-GO- nad-izm)

below normal gonad (sex gland) function .

Hypotension

Low blood pressure or a sudden drop in blood pressure. A person rising quickly from a sitting or reclining position may have a sudden fall in blood pressure, causing dizziness or fainting.

Hypothalamus

an area of the forebrain which regulates pituitary glandpituitary secretion among many other functions.

Hypothesis

a tentative statement or supposition, which may then be tested through research.

Hypoxemia (high-POCK-see-me-- ah)

below normal oxygen content in arterial blood

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I . . .

IBD

See Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD).

IBS

See Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).

IDDM

See: Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus.

Idiopathic (id-ee-oh-PATH-ik)

describing a disease of unknown cause

Ileal (IL-ee-ul)

Related to the ileum, the lowest end of the small intestine.

Ileal Pouch (IL-ee-ul powtch)

See Ileoanal Reservoir.

Ileitis (il-ee-EYE-tis)

See Crohn's Disease.

Ileoanal Pull-Through (il-ee-oh-AY-nul PUL-throo)

An operation to remove the colon and inner lining of the rectum. The outer muscle of the rectum is not touched. The bottom end of the small intestine (ileum) is pulled through the remaining rectum and joined to the anus. Stool can be passed normally. Also called ileoanal anastomosis.

Ileoanal Reservoir (il-ee-oh-AY-nul REZ-uh-vwar)

An operation to remove the colon, upper rectum, and part of the lower rectum. An internal pouch is created from the remaining intestine to hold stool. The operation may be done in two stages. The pouch may also be called a J-pouch or W-pouch.

Ileocecal Valve (il-ee-oh-SEE-kul valv)

A valve that connects the lower part of the small intestine and the upper part of the large intestine (ileum and cecum). Controls the flow of fluid in the intestines and prevents backflow.

lleocolitis (il-ee-oh-koh-LY-tis)

Irritation of the lower part of the small intestine (ileum) and colon.

Ileostomy (il-ee-AW-stuh-mee)

An operation that makes it possible for stool to leave the body after the colon and rectum are removed. The surgeon makes an opening in the abdomen and attaches the bottom of the small intestine (ileum) to it.

Ileum (il-ee-um)

The lower end of the small intestine.

Immune complex

the result of a reaction between an antigen and a specific antibody. This combination of antigen bound by antibody may or may not cause adverse effects in a person.

Immunity

natural or acquired resistance provided by the immune system to a specific disease. Immunity may be partial or complete, specific or nonspecific, long-lasting or temporary.

Immunization

the process of inducing immunity by administering an antigen (vaccine) to allow the immune system to prevent infection or illness when it subsequently encounters the infectious agent.

Immunodeficiency, immune deficiency

a condition resulting from a defective immune system; a breakdown or inability of certain parts of the immune system to function, thus making a person susceptible to diseases that they would not ordinarily develop.

Immunogen

a substance capable of provoking an immune response. Also called an antigen.

Immunocompetent

capable of developing an immune response; possessing a normal immune system.

Immunogenicity

the ability of an antigen or vaccine to stimulate immune responses.

Immunoglobulin

a general term for antibodies, which bind to invading organisms, leading to their destruction. There are five classes of immunoglobulins: IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD and IgE. (See also antibody.)

Immunosuppressive Drugs

Drugs that block the body's ability to fight infection or foreign substances that enter the body. A person receiving a kidney or pancreas transplant is given these drugs to stop the body from rejecting the new organ or tissue. Cyclosporin is a commonly used immunosuppressive drug.

Immunotherapy

a treatment that stimulates or modifies the body's immune response.

Impaction (im-PAK-shun)

The trapping of an object in a body passage. Examples are stones in the bile duct or hardened stool in the colon.

Impaired Glucose Tolerance (IGT)

Blood glucose (sugar) levels higher than normal but not high enough to be called diabetes. People with IGT may or may not develop diabetes. Other names (no longer used) for IGT are "borderline," "subclinical," "chemical," or "latent" diabetes.

Imperforate Anus (im-PUR-fuh-rut AY-nus)

A birth defect in which the anal canal fails to develop. The condition is treated with an operation.

Impotence

The loss of a man's ability to have an erect penis and to emit semen. Some men may become impotent after having diabetes for a long time because the nerves or blood vessels have become damaged. Sometimes the problem has nothing to do with diabetes and may be treated with counseling.

Incidence

How often a disease occurs; the number of new cases of a disease among a certain group of people for a certain period of time; the rate of occurrence of some event, such as the number of individuals who get a disease divided by a total given population per unit of time. (Contrast with prevalence.)

Inclusion/exclusion criteria

the medical or social reasons why a person may or may not qualify for participation in a clinical trial. For example, some trials may exclude people with chronic liver disease or with certain drug allergies; others may include only people with a low CD4+ T-cell count.

IND (investigational new drug)

the status of an experimental drug after the FDA agrees that it can be tested in people.

Indigestion (in-duh-JES-tchun)

Poor digestion. Symptoms include heartburn, nausea, bloating, and gas. Also called dyspepsia.

INDIRECT THROMBIN INHIBITOR

An agent that inactivates thrombin by catalyzing the activation of naturally occurring thrombin inhibitors such as antithrombin III and heparin cofactor II.

Informed consent

an agreement signed by prospective volunteers for a clinical research trial that indicates their understanding of

1. why the research is being done,
2. what researchers want to accomplish,
3. what will be done during the trial and for how long,
4. what risks are involved,
5. what, if any, benefits can be expected from the trial,
6. what other interventions are available, and
7. the participant’s right to leave the trial at any time.

INFARCT (IN-farkt)

An area of necrosis in a tissue due to local ischemia resulting from obstruction of circulation to the area, most commonly caused by a thrombus or embolus.

INFARCTION (in-FARK-shun)

The formation of an infarct.

Infectious Diarrhea (in-FEK-shus dy-uh-REE-uh)

Diarrhea caused by infection from bacteria, viruses, or parasites. See also Travelers' Diarrhea and Gastroenteritis.

Infectious Gastroenteritis (in-FEK-shus gah-stroh-en-tuh-RY-tis)

See Gastroenteritis.

Infiltrate (in-FILL-trait)

material deposited as a result of filtration

Inflammation

A typical reaction of tissues to injury or disease. It is marked by four signs: swelling, redness, heat, and pain.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) (in-FLAM-uh-toh-ree BAH-wul duh-zeez)

Long-lasting problems that cause irritation and ulcers in the GI tract. The most common disorders are ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease.

Inguinal Hernia (IN-gwuh-nul HUR-nee-uh)

A small part of the large or small intestine or bladder that pushes into the groin. May cause pain and feelings of pressure or burning in the groin. Often requires surgery.

Insulin

A hormone that helps the body use glucose (sugar) for energy. The beta cells of the pancreas (in areas called the islets of Langerhans) make the insulin. When the body cannot make enough insulin on its own, a person with diabetes must inject insulin made from other sources, i.e., beef, pork, human insulin (recombinant DNA origin), or human insulin (pork-derived, semisynthetic).

Insulin Allergy

When a person's body has an allergic or bad reaction to taking insulin made from pork or beef or from bacteria, or because the insulin is not exactly the same as human insulin or because it has impurities.

The allergy can be of two forms. Sometimes an area of skin becomes red and itchy around the place where the insulin is injected. This is called a local allergy.

In another form, a person's whole body can have a bad reaction This is called a systemic allergy. The person can have hives or red patches all over the body or may feel changes in the heart rate and in the rate of breathing. A doctor may treat this allergy by prescribing purified insulins or by desensitization. See also: Desensitization.

Insulin Antagonist

Something that opposes or fights the action of insulin. Insulin lowers the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood, whereas glucagon raises it; therefore, glucagon is an antagonist of insulin.

Insulin Binding

When insulin attaches itself to something else. This can occur in two ways. First, when a cell needs energy, insulin can bind with the outer part of the cell. The cell then can bring glucose (sugar) inside and use it for energy. With the help of insulin, the cell can do its work very well and very quickly. But sometimes the body acts against itself. In this second case, the insulin binds with the proteins that are supposed to protect the body from outside substances (antibodies). If the insulin is an injected form of insulin and not made by the body, the body sees the insulin as an outside or "foreign" substance. When the injected insulin binds with the antibodies, it does not work as well as when it binds directly to the cell.

Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus (IDDM)

A chronic condition in which the pancreas makes little or no insulin because the beta cells have been destroyed. The body is then not able to use the glucose (blood sugar) for energy. IDDM usually comes on abruptly, although the damage to the beta cells may begin much earlier. The signs of IDDM are a great thirst, hunger, a need to urinate often, and loss of weight. To treat the disease, the person must inject insulin, follow a diet plan, exercise daily, and test blood glucose several times a day. IDDM usually occurs in children and adults who are under age 30. This type of diabetes used to be known as "juvenile diabetes," "juvenile-onset diabetes," and "ketosis-prone diabetes." It is also called type I diabetes mellitus.

Insulin Pump

A device that delivers a continuous supply of insulin into the body. The insulin flows from the pump through a plastic tube that is connected to a needle inserted into the body and taped in place. Insulin is delivered at two rates: a low, steady rate (called the basal rate) for continuous day-long coverage, and extra boosts of insulin (called bolus doses) to cover meals or when extra insulin is needed. The pump runs on batteries and can be worn clipped to a belt or carried in a pocket. It is used by people with insulin- dependent diabetes.

Insulin Receptor

Areas on the outer part of a cell that allow the cell to join or bind with insulin that is in the blood. When the cell and insulin bind together, the cell can take glucose (sugar) from the blood and use it for energy.

Insulin Resistance

Many people with noninsulin-dependent diabetes produce enough insulin, but their bodies do not respond to the action of insulin. This may happen because the person is overweight and has too many fat cells, which do not respond well to insulin. Also, as people age, their body cells lose some of the ability to respond to insulin. Insulin resistance is also linked to high blood pressure and high levels of fat in the blood. Another kind of insulin resistance may happen in some people who take insulin injections. They may have to take very high doses of insulin every day (200 units or more) to bring their blood glucose (sugar) down to the normal range. This is also called "insulin insensitivity.

Insulin Shock

A severe condition that occurs when the level of blood glucose (sugar) drops quickly. The signs are shaking, sweating, dizziness, double vision, convulsions, and collapse. Insulin shock may occur when an insulin reaction is not treated quickly enough. See also: Hypoglycemia; insulin reaction.

Internist

A doctor who specializes in internal medicine (not requiring surgery).

Intestines (in-TES-tinz)

See Large Intestine and Small Intestine. Also called gut.

Intestinal Flora (in-TES-tuh-nul FLOR-uh)

The bacteria, yeasts, and fungi that grow normally in the intestines.

Intestinal Mucosa (in-TES-tuh-nul myoo-KOH-zuh)

The surface lining of the intestines where the cells absorb nutrients.

Intestinal Pseudo-Obstruction (in-TES-tuh-nul SOO-doh ub-STRUK-shun)

A disorder that causes symptoms of blockage, but no actual blockage. Causes constipation, vomiting, and pain. See also Obstruction.

Intolerance (in-TAH-luh-runs)

Allergy to a food, drug, or other substance.

Intramuscular Injection

Putting a fluid into a muscle with a needle and syringe.

Intravenous Injection

Putting a fluid into a vein with a needle and syringe.

Intussusception (IN-tuh-suh-SEP-shun)

A rare disorder. A part of the intestines folds into another part of the intestines, causing blockage. Most common in infants. Can be treated with an operation.

In vitro (in VEE-troh)

from the Latin meaning in glass; in an artificial environment such as a test tube or the equivalent laboratory apparatus; an artificial environment created outside a living organism (e.g., in a test tube or culture plate) used in experimental research to study a disease or biologic process.

In vivo (in VEE-voh)

testing within a living organism, e.g., human or animal studies.

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

a committee of physicians, statisticians, community advocates and others that reviews clinical trial protocols before they can be initiated. IRBs ensure that the trial is ethical and that the rights of participants are adequately protected.

Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) (EER-uh-tuh-bul BAH-wul sin-drohm)

A disorder that comes and goes. Nerves that control the muscles in the GI tract are too active. The GI tract becomes sensitive to food, stool, gas, and stress. Causes abdominal pain, bloating, and constipation or diarrhea. Also called spastic colon or mucous colitis.

Ischemic Colitis (is-KEE-mik koh-LY-tis)

Decreased blood flow to the colon. Causes fever, pain, and bloody diarrhea.

Islets of Langerhans

Special groups of cells in the pancreas. They make and secrete hormones that help the body break down and use food. Named after Paul Langerhans, the German scientist who discovered them in 1869, these cells sit in clusters in the pancreas. There are five types of cells in an islet: beta cells, which make insulin; alpha cells, which make glucagon; delta cells, which make somatostaton; and PP cells and D1 cells, about which little is known.

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J . . .

Jaundice (JAWN-dus)

A symptom of many disorders. Jaundice causes the skin and eyes to turn yellow from too much bilirubin in the blood. See also Hyperbilirubinemia.

Jejunum (juh-JOON-um)

The middle section of the small intestine between the duodenum and ileum.

Jejunostomy (juh-joo-NAW-stuh-mee)

An operation to create an opening of the jejunum to a hole (stoma) in the abdomen. See also Enteral Nutrition.

Joint

The place where two bones meet. Most joints are composed of cartilage, joint space, fibrous capsule, synovium, and ligaments.

Joint space

The area enclosed within the fibrous capsule and synovium.

Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis

A chronic arthritis of childhood that causes pain, stiffness, swelling, and loss of function in the joints and may also affect other parts of the body.

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K . . .

Ketone Bodies

Chemicals that the body makes when there is not enough insulin in the blood and it must break down fat for its energy. Ketone bodies can poison and even kill body cells. When the body does not have the help of insulin, the ketones build up in the blood and then "spill" over into the urine so that the body can get rid of them. The body can also rid itself of one type of ketone, called acetone, through the lungs. This gives the breath a fruity odor. Ketones that build up in the body for a long time lead to serious illness and coma. See also: Diabetic ketoacidosis.

Kidney Disease

Any one of several chronic conditions that are caused by damage to the cells of the kidney. People who have had diabetes for a long time may have kidney damage. Also called nephropathy.

Kidneys

Two organs in the lower back that clean waste and poisons from the blood. The kidneys are shaped like two large beans, and they act as the body's filter. They also control the level of some chemicals in the blood such as hydrogen, sodium, potassium, and phosphate.

Kupffer's Cells (KOOP-furz selz)

Cells that line the liver. These cells remove waste such as bacteria from the blood.

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